The Benefits of Guide Dogs Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Benefits of Guide Dogs and the Process of Obtaining Them If you are 16 or older, legally blind, and have the ability to love and take care of a dog, you may be a candidate for a guiding eyes dog. Guide dogs help blind or visually impaired people get around the world. In most countries, they are allowed anywhere that the public is allowed, so they can help their handlers be any place they might want to go. To do this, a guide dog must know how to: keep on a direct route, ignoring distractions such as smells, other animals and people, maintain a steady pace to the left and just ahead of the handler, stop at all curbs until told to proceed, turn left and right, move forward and stop on command, recognize and avoid obstacles that the handler won’t be able to fit through (narrow passages and overheads), stop at the bottom and top of stairs until told to proceed, bring the handler to elevator buttons, lie quietly when the handler is sitting down, help the handler to board and move around buses, subways, and other forms of public transport ation, and finally, to obey a number of verbal commands (Fueoco, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Additionally, a guide dog must know to disobey any command that would put the handler in danger. This ability, called selective disobedience, is perhaps the most amazing think about guide dogs – that they can balance obedience with their own assessment of the situation. This capacity is extremely important at crosswalks, where the handler and dog must work very closely together to navigate the situation safely. When the team reaches the curb, the dog stops, signaling to the handler that they have reached a crosswalk. Dogs cannot distinguish the color of traffic lights, so the handler must make the decision of when it is safe to proceed across the road. The handler listens to the flow of traffic to figure out when the light has changed and then gives the command, â€Å"forward.† If there is no danger, the dog proceeds across the road in a straight line. If there are cars approaching, the dog waits until the danger is gone and then follows the forward command.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a handler – guide dog team, the guide dog doesn’t lead the handler and the handler doesn’t completely control the guide dog; the two work together t... ...to the puppy - raisers if they are thinking of one day owning a dog but are unaware of the responsibility that comes along with it. Puppy – raisers are also just doing it out of the goodness of their hearts, which is a great thing, in my eyes. I believe that the process in which these dogs go through is necessary, and extremely important if there is expected success. Success, of course, is the ability of a blind person and dog to work together and live happily. The dog serves as eyes for the owner, and the owner is a companion to a dog that is required to have much socialization during training. It is not difficult to see how wonderful this practice of guide dog training can be, and the substantial benefits that develop once the training is completed. Works Cited: Fueoco, Linda. â€Å"Guide Dog Educates Students, Gives Owner Mobility.† Pet Tales. 1.2 (October 2001). Oct. 2001. http://www.post - gazette.com/pets/20001025spet.asp http://penny.myriad.net/chosen.html http://www.guidedogs.com.au/faq/faq_dog.html http://www.guiding-eyes.org/info/getdog.html http://thepuppyplace.org/page19.html http://www.guidedogsofamerica.org/pupraise/about.html

Forward the Foundation Chapter 16

6 Hari Seldon was fighting off melancholy. He was lectured in turn by Dors, by Raych, by Yugo, and by Manella. All united to tell him that sixty was not old. They simply did not understand. He had been thirty when the first hint of psychohistory had come to him, thirty-two when he delivered his famous lecture at the Decennial Convention, following which everything seemed to happen to him at once. After his brief interview with Cleon, He had fled across Trantor and met Demerzel, Dors, Yugo, and Raych, to say nothing of the people of Mycogen, of Dahl, and of Wye. He was forty when he became First Minister and fifty when he had relinquished the post. Now he was sixty. He had spent thirty years on psychohistory. How many more years would he require? How many more years would he live? Would he die with the Psychohistory Project unfinished after all? It was not the dying that bothered him, he told himself. It was the matter of leaving the Psychohistory Project unfinished. He went to see Yugo Amaryl. In recent years they had somehow drifted apart, as the Psychohistory Project had steadily increased in size. In the first years at Streeling, it had merely been Seldon and Amaryl working together-no one else. Now ** Amaryl was nearly fifty-not exactly a young man-and he had somehow lost his spark. In all these years, he had developed no interest in anything but psychohistory: no woman, no companion, no hobby, no subsidiary activity. Amaryl blinked at Seldon who couldn't help but note the changes in the man's appearance. Part of it may have been because Yugo had had to have his eyes reconstructed. He saw perfectly well, but there was an unnatural look about them and he tended to blink slowly. It made him appear sleepy. â€Å"What do you think, Yugo?† said Seldon. â€Å"Is there any light at the end of the tunnel?† â€Å"Light? Yes, as a matter of fact,† said Amaryl. â€Å"There's this new fellow, Tamwile Elar. You know him, of course.† â€Å"Oh yes. I'm the one who hired him. Very vigorous and aggressive. How's he doing?† â€Å"I can't say I'm really comfortable with him, Hari. His loud laughter gets on my nerves. But he's brilliant. The new system of equations fits right into the Prime Radiant and they seem to make it possible to get around the problem of chaos.† â€Å"Seem? Or will?† â€Å"Too early to say, but I'm very hopeful. I have tried a number of things that would have broken them down if they were worthless and the new equations survived them all. I'm beginning to think of them as the achaotic equations!† â€Å"I don't imagine,† said Seldon â€Å"we have anything like a rigorous demonstration concerning these equations?† â€Å"No, we don't, though I've put half a dozen people on it, including Elar, of course.† Amaryl turned on his Prime Radiant-which was every bit as advanced as Seldon's was-and he watched as the curving lines of luminous equations curled in midair-too small, too fine to be read without amplification. â€Å"Add the new equations and we may be able to begin to predict.† â€Å"Each time I study the Prime Radiant now,† said Seldon thoughtfully, â€Å"I wonder at the Electro-Clarifier and how tightly it squeezes material into the lines and curves of the future. Wasn't that Elar's idea, too?† â€Å"Yes. With the help of Cinda Monay, who designed it.† â€Å"It's good to have new and brilliant men and women in the Project. Somehow it reconciles me to the future.† â€Å"You think someone like Elar may be heading the Project someday?† asked Amaryl, still studying the Prime Radiant. â€Å"Maybe. After you and I have retired-or died.† Amaryl seemed to relax and turned off the device. â€Å"I would like to complete the task before we retire or die.† â€Å"So would I, Yugo. So would I.† â€Å"Psychohistory has guided us pretty well in the last ten years.† That was true enough, but Seldon knew that one couldn't attach too much triumph to that. Things had gone smoothly and without major surprises. Psychohistory had predicted that the center would hold after Cleon's death-predicted it in a very dim and uncertain way-and it did hold. Trantor was reasonably quiet. Even with an assassination and the end of a dynasty, the center had held. It did so under the stress of military rule-Dors was quite right in speaking of the junta as â€Å"those military rascals.† She might have even gone farther in her accusations without being wrong. Nevertheless, they were holding the Empire together and would continue to do so for a time. Long enough, perhaps, to allow psychohistory to play an active role in the events that were to transpire. Lately Yugo had been speaking about the possible establishment of Foundations-separate, isolated, independent of the Empire itself serving as seeds for developments through the forthcoming dark ages and into a new and better Empire. Seldon himself had been working on the consequences of such an arrangement. But he lacked the time and, he felt (with a certain misery), he lacked the youth as well. His mind, however firm and steady, did not have the resiliency and creativity that it had had when he was thirty and with each passing year, he knew he would have less. Perhaps he ought to put the young and brilliant Elar on the task, taking him off everything else. Seldon had to admit to himself, shamefacedly, that the possibility did not excite him. He did not want to have invented psychohistory so that some stripling could come in and reap the final fruits of fame. In fact, to put it at its most disgraceful, Seldon felt jealous of Elar and realized it just sufficiently to feel ashamed of the emotion. Yet, regardless of his less rational feelings, he would have to depend on other younger men-whatever his discomfort over it. Psychohistory was no longer the private preserve of himself and Amaryl. The decade of his being First Minister had converted it into a large government-sanctioned and -budgeted undertaking and, quite to his surprise, after resigning from his post as First Minister and returning to Streeling University, it had grown still larger. Hari grimaced at its ponderous-and pompous-official name: the Seldon Psychohistory Project at Streeling University. But most people simply referred to it as the Project. The military junta apparently saw the Project as a possible political weapon and while that was so, funding was no problem. Credits poured in. In return, it was necessary to prepare annual reports, which, however, were quite opaque. Only fringe matters were reported on and even then the mathematics was not likely to be within the purview of any of the members of the junta. It was clear as he left his old assistant that Amaryl, at least, was more than satisfied with the way psychohistory was going and yet Seldon felt the blanket of depression settle over him once more. He decided it was the forthcoming birthday celebration that was bothering him. It was meant as a celebration of joy, but to Hari it was not even a gesture of consolation-it merely emphasized his age. Besides, it was upsetting his routine and Hari was a creature of habit. His office and a number of those adjoining had been cleared out and it had been days since he had been able to work normally. His proper offices would be converted into halls of glory, he supposed, and it would be many days before he could get back to work. Only Amaryl absolutely refused to budge and was able to maintain his office. Seldon had wondered, peevishly, who had thought of doing all this. It wasn't Dors, of course. She knew him entirely too well. Not Amaryl or Raych, who never even remembered their own birthdays. He had suspected Manella and had even confronted her on the matter. She admitted that she was all for it and had given orders for the arrangements to take place, but she said that the idea for the birthday party had been suggested to her by Tamwile Elar. The brilliant one, thought Seldon. Brilliant in everything. He sighed. If only the birthday were all over. Dors poked her head through the door. â€Å"Am I allowed to come in?† â€Å"No, of course not. Why should you think I would?† â€Å"This is not your usual place.† â€Å"I know,† sighed Seldon. â€Å"I have been evicted from my usual place because of the stupid birthday party. How I wish it were over.† â€Å"There you are. Once that woman gets an idea in her head, it takes over and grows like the big bang.† Seldon changed sides at once. â€Å"Come. She means well, Dors.† â€Å"Save me from the well-meaning,† said Dors. â€Å"In any case, I'm here to discuss something else. Something which may be important.† â€Å"Go ahead. What is it?† â€Å"I've been talking to Wanda about her dream-† She hesitated. Seldon made a gargling sound in the back of his throat, then said, â€Å"I can't believe it. Just let it go.† â€Å"No. Did you bother to ask her for the details of the dream?† â€Å"Why should I put the little girl through that?† â€Å"Neither did Raych, nor Manella. It was left up to me.† â€Å"But why should you torture her with questions about it?† â€Å"Because I had the feeling I should,† said Dors grimly. â€Å"In the first place, she didn't have the dream when she was home in her bed.† â€Å"Where was she, then?† â€Å"In your office.† â€Å"What was she doing in my office?† â€Å"She wanted to see the place where the party would be and she walked into your office and, of course, there was nothing to see, as it's been cleared out in preparation. But your chair was still there. The large one-tall back, tall wings, broken-down-the one you won't let me replace.† Hari sighed, as if recalling a longstanding disagreement. â€Å"It's not broken-down. I don't want a new one. Go on.† â€Å"She curled up in your chair and began to brood over the fact that maybe you weren't really going to have a party and she felt bad. Then, she tells me, she must have fallen asleep because nothing is clear in her mind, except that in her dream there were two men-not women, she was sure about that-two men, talking.† â€Å"And what were they talking about?† â€Å"She doesn't know exactly. You know how difficult it is to remember details under such circumstances. But she says it was about dying and she thought it was you because you were so old. And she remembers two words clearly. They were ‘lemonade death.'† â€Å"What?† â€Å"Lemonade death.† â€Å"What does that mean?† â€Å"I don't know. In any case, the talking ceased, the men left, and there she was in the chair, cold and frightened-and she's been upset about it ever since.† Seldon mulled over Dors's report. Then he said, â€Å"Look, dear, what importance can we attach to a child's dream?† â€Å"We can ask ourselves first, Hari, if it even was a dream.† â€Å"What do you mean?† â€Å"Wanda doesn't say outright it was. She says she ‘must have fallen asleep.' Those are her words. She didn't say she fell asleep, she said she must have fallen asleep.† â€Å"What do you deduce from that?† â€Å"She may have drifted off into a half-doze and, in that state, heard two men-two real men, not two dream men-talking.† â€Å"Real men? Talking about killing me with lemonade death?† â€Å"Something like that, yes.† â€Å"Dors,† said Seldon forcefully, â€Å"I know that you're forever foreseeing danger for me, but this is going too far. Why should anyone want to kill me?† â€Å"It's been tried twice before.† â€Å"So it has, but consider the circumstances. The first attempt came shortly after Cleon appointed me First Minister. Naturally this was an offense to the well-established court hierarchy and I was very resented. A few thought they might settle matters by getting rid of me. The second time was when the Joranumites were trying to seize power and they thought I was standing in their way-plus Namarti's distorted dream of revenge. â€Å"Fortunately neither assassination attempt succeeded, but why should there now be a third? I am no longer First Minister and haven't been for ten years. I am an aging mathematician in retirement and surely no one has anything to fear from me. The Joranumites have been rooted out and destroyed and Namarti was executed long ago. There is absolutely no motivation for anyone to want to kill me. â€Å"So please, Dors, relax. When you're nervous about me, you get unsettled, which makes you more nervous still, and I don't want that to happen.† Dors rose from her seat and leaned across Hari's desk. â€Å"It's easy for you to say that there is no motive to kill you, but none is needed. Our government is now a completely irresponsible one and if they wish-â€Å" â€Å"Stop!† commanded Seldon loudly. Then, very quietly, â€Å"Not a word, Dors. Not a word against the government. That could get us in the very trouble you're foreseeing.† â€Å"I'm only talking to you, Hari.† â€Å"Right now you are, but if you get into the habit of saying foolish things, you don't know when something will slip out in someone else's presence-someone who will then be glad to report you. Just learn, as a matter of necessity, to refrain from political commentary.† â€Å"I'll try, Hari,† said Dors, but she could not keep the indignation out of her voice. She turned on her heel and left. Seldon watched her go. Dors had aged gracefully, so gracefully that at times she seemed not to have aged at all. Though she was two years younger than Seldon, her appearance had not changed nearly as much as his had in the twenty-eight years they had been together. Naturally. Her hair was frosted with gray, but the youthful luster beneath the gray still shone through. Her complexion had grown more sallow; her voice was a bit huskier, and, of course, she wore clothes that were suitable for middle age. However, her movements were as agile and as quick as ever. It was as if nothing could be allowed to interfere with her ability to protect Hari in case of an emergency. Hari sighed. This business of being protected-more or less against his will, at all times-was sometimes a heavy burden. 8 Manella came to see Seldon almost immediately afterward. â€Å"Pardon me, Hari, but what has Dors been saying?† Seldon looked up again. Nothing but interruptions. â€Å"It wasn't anything important. Wanda's dream.† Manella's lips pursed. â€Å"I knew it. Wanda said Dors was asking her questions about it. Why doesn't she leave the girl alone? You would think that having a bad dream was some sort of felony.† â€Å"As a matter of fact,† said Seldon soothingly, â€Å"it's just a matter of something Wanda remembered as part of the dream. I don't know if Wanda told you, but apparently in her dream she heard something about ‘lemonade death.' â€Å" â€Å"Hmm!† Manella was silent for a moment. Then she said, â€Å"That doesn't really matter so much. Wanda is crazy about lemonade and she's expecting lots of it at the party. I promised she'd have some with Mycogenian drops in it and she's looking forward to it.† â€Å"So that if she heard something that sounded anything like lemonade, it would be translated into lemonade in her mind.† â€Å"Yes. Why not?† â€Å"Except that, in that case, what do you suppose it was that was actually said? She must have heard something in order to misinterpret it.† â€Å"I don't think that's necessarily so. But why are we attaching so much importance to a little girl's dream? Please, I don't want anyone talking to her about it anymore. It's too upsetting.† â€Å"I agree. I'll see to it that Dors drops the subject-at least with Wanda.† â€Å"All right. I don't care if she is Wanda's grandmother, Hari. I'm her mother, after all, and my wishes come first.† â€Å"Absolutely,† said Seldon soothingly and looked after Manella as she left. That was another burden-the unending competition between those two women. 9 Tamwile Elar was thirty-six years old and had joined Seldon's Psychohistory Project as Senior Mathematician four years earlier. He was a tall man, with a habitual twinkle in his eye and with more than a touch of self-assurance as well. His hair was brown and had a loose wave in it, the more noticeable because he wore it rather long. He had an abrupt way of laughing, but there was no fault to be found with his mathematical ability. Elar had been recruited from the West Mandanov University and Seldon always had to smile when he remembered how suspicious Yugo Amaryl had been of him at first. But then, Amaryl was suspicious of everyone. Deep in his heart (Seldon felt sure), Amaryl felt that psychohistory ought to have remained his and Hari's private province. But even Amaryl was now willing to admit that Elar's membership in the group had eased his own situation tremendously. Yugo said, â€Å"His techniques for avoiding chaos are unique and fascinating. No one else in the Project could have worked it out the way he did. Certainly nothing of this sort ever occurred to me. It didn't occur to you, either, Hari.† â€Å"Well,† said Seldon grumpily, â€Å"I'm getting old.† â€Å"If only,† said Amaryl, â€Å"he didn't laugh so loud.† â€Å"People can't help the way they laugh.† Yet the truth was that Seldon found himself having a little trouble accepting Elar. It was rather humiliating that he himself had come nowhere near the â€Å"achaotic equations,† as they were now called. It didn't bother Seldon that he had never thought of the principle behind the Electro-Clarifier-that was not really his field. The achaotic equations, however, he should, indeed, have thought of-or at least gotten close to. He tried reasoning with himself. Seldon had worked out the entire basis for psychohistory and the achaotic equations grew naturally out of that basis. Could Elar have done Seldon's work three decades earlier? Seldon was convinced that Elar couldn't have. And was it so remarkable that Elar had thought up the principle of achaotism once the basis was in place? All this was very sensible and very true, yet Seldon still found himself uneasy when facing Elar. Just slightly edgy. Weary age facing flamboyant youth. Yet Elar never gave him obvious cause for feeling the difference in years. He never failed to show Seldon full respect or in any way to imply that the older man had passed his prime. Of course, Elar was interested in the forthcoming festivities and had even, as Seldon had discovered, been the first to suggest that Seldon's birthday be celebrated. (Was this a nasty emphasis on Seldon's age? Seldon dismissed the possibility. If he believed that, it would mean he was picking up some of Dors's tricks of suspicion. Elar strode toward him and said, â€Å"Maestro-† And Seldon winced, as always. He much preferred to have the senior members of the Project call him Hari, but it seemed such a small point to make a fuss over. â€Å"Maestro,† said Elar. â€Å"The word is out that you've been called in for a conference with General Tennar.† â€Å"Yes. He's the new head of the military junta and I suppose he wants to see me to ask what psychohistory is all about. They've been asking me that since the days of Cleon and Demerzel.† (The new head! The junta was like a kaleidoscope, with some of its members periodically falling from grace and others rising from nowhere.) â€Å"But it's my understanding he wants it now-right in the middle of the birthday celebration.† â€Å"That doesn't matter. You can all celebrate without me.† â€Å"No, we can't, Maestro. I hope you don't mind, but some of us got together and put in a call to the Palace and put the appointment off for a week.† â€Å"What?† said Seldon annoyed. â€Å"Surely that was presumptuous of you-and risky, besides.† â€Å"It worked out well. They've put it off and you'll need that time.† â€Å"Why would I need a week?† Elar hesitated. â€Å"May I speak frankly, Maestro?† â€Å"Of course you can. When have I ever asked that anyone speak to me m any way but frankly?† Elar flushed slightly, his fair skin reddening, but his voice remained steady. â€Å"It's not easy to say this, Maestro. You're a genius at mathematics. No one on the Project has any doubt of that. No one in the Empire-they knew you and understood mathematics-would have any doubt about it. However, it is not given to anybody to be a universal genius.† â€Å"I know that as well as you do, Elar.† â€Å"I know you do. Specifically, though, you lack the ability to handle ordinary people-shall we say, stupid people. You lack a certain deviousness, a certain ability to sidestep, and if you are dealing with someone who is both powerful in government and somewhat stupid, you can easily endanger the Project and, for that matter, your own life, simply because you are too frank.† â€Å"What is this? Am I suddenly a child? I've been dealing with politicians for a long time. I was First Minister for ten years, as perhaps you may remember.† â€Å"Forgive me, Maestro, but you were not an extraordinarily effective one. You dealt with First Minister Demerzel, who was very intelligent, by all accounts, and with the Emperor Cleon, who was very friendly. Now you will encounter military people who are neither intelligent nor friendly-another matter entirely.† â€Å"I've even dealt with military people and survived.† â€Å"Not with General Dugal Tennar. He's another sort of thing altogether. I know him.† â€Å"You know him? You have met him?† â€Å"I don't know him personally, but he's from Mandanov, which, as you know, is my sector, and he was a power there before he joined the junta and rose through its ranks.† â€Å"And what do you know about him?† â€Å"Ignorant, superstitious, violent. He is not someone you can handle easily-or safely. You can use the week to work out methods for dealing with him.† Seldon bit his lower lip. There was something to what Elar said and Seldon recognized the fact that, while he had plans of his own, it would still be difficult to try to manipulate a stupid, self-important, short-tempered person with overwhelming force at his disposal. He said uneasily, â€Å"I'll manage somehow. The whole matter of a military junta is, in any case, an unstable situation in the Trantor of today. It has already lasted longer than might have seemed likely.† â€Å"Have we been testing that? I was not aware that we were making stability decisions on the junta.† â€Å"Just a few calculations by Amaryl, making use of your achaotic equations.† He paused. â€Å"By the way, I've come across some references to them as the Elar Equations.† â€Å"Not by me, Maestro.† â€Å"I hope you don't mind, but I don't want that. Psychohistoric elements are to be described functionally and not personally. As soon as personalities intervene, bad feelings arise.† â€Å"I understand and quite agree, Maestro.† â€Å"In fact,† said Seldon with a touch of guilt, â€Å"I have always felt it wrong that we speak of the basic Seldon Equations of Psychohistory. The trouble is that's been in use for so many years, it's not practical to try to change it.† â€Å"If you'll excuse my saying so, Maestro, you're an exceptional case. No one, I think, would quarrel with your receiving full credit for inventing the science of psychohistory. But, if I may, I wish to get back to your meeting with General Tennar.† â€Å"Well, what else is there to say?† â€Å"I can't help but wonder if it might be better if you did not see him, did not speak to him, did not deal with him.† â€Å"How am I to avoid that if he calls me in for a conference?† â€Å"Perhaps you can plead illness and send someone in your place.† â€Å"Whom?† Elar was silent for a moment, but his silence was eloquent. Seldon said, â€Å"You, I take it.† â€Å"Might that not be the thing to do? I am a fellow sectoral citizen of the General, which may carry some weight. You are a busy man, getting on in years, and it would be easy to believe that you are not entirely well. And if I see him, rather than yourself-please excuse me, Maestro-I can wiggle and maneuver more easily than you can.† â€Å"Lie, you mean.† â€Å"If necessary.† â€Å"You'll be taking a huge chance.† â€Å"Not too huge. I doubt that he will order my execution. If he becomes annoyed with me, as he well might, then I can plead-or you can plead on my behalf-youth and inexperience. In any case, if I get into trouble, that will be far less dangerous than if you were to do so. I'm thinking of the Project, which can do without me a great deal more easily than it can without you.† Seldon said with a frown, â€Å"I'm not going to hide behind you, Elar. If the man wants to see me, he will see me. I refuse to shiver and shake and ask you to take chances for me. What do you think I am?† â€Å"A frank and honest man-when the need is for a devious one.† â€Å"I will manage to be devious-if I must. Please don't underestimate me, Elar.† Elar shrugged hopelessly. â€Å"Very well. I can only argue with you up to a certain point.† â€Å"In fact, Elar, I wish you had not postponed the meeting. I would rather skip my birthday and see the General than the reverse. This birthday celebration was not my idea.† His voice died away in a grumble. Elar said, â€Å"I'm sorry.† â€Å"Well,† said Seldon with resignation, â€Å"we'll see what happens.† He turned and left. Sometimes he wished ardently that he could run what was called a â€Å"tight ship,† making sure that everything went as he wished it to, leaving little or no room for maneuvering among his subordinates. To do that, however, would take enormous time, enormous effort, would deprive him of any chance of working on psychohistory himself-and, besides, he simply lacked the temperament for it. He sighed. He would have to speak to Amaryl.

Death Comes As The End Captured The Misery And Fear Of...

Imagine watching everyone you love die around you, knowing your turn may come soon. Agatha Christie’s fictional novel Death Comes as the End captured the misery and fear of this situation by relaying the story of Renisenb and her struggle to stay true to her identity. Throughout the story, Christie incorporated imagery, themes, and symbolism in order to enhance the plot. First, imagery captivates readers by painting images in their minds so they can better imagine the scenes and will have an easier time relating to the story. For example, â€Å"[I]t was a cobra. Catching up a heavy staff Sobek attacked it furiously. A well-directed blow broke its back, but Sobek continued to strike it, his head thrown back, his eyes sparkling† (50). This example of imagery appeals to the reader’s sense of sight and adds to the overall experience of the novel by establishing a frightening mood. 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Take the Steps Today to Become a School Teacher Tomorrow 2019

Whether you are an undergraduate or graduate student in a teacher preparation program, or a liberal arts and sciences major, if you want to become a schoolteacher there are several steps you need to take. To teach in public schools you need a license, and that means you need an accredited bachelors degree program in education. These programs have the required number of education and subject credits and include supervised practical teaching experience in schools. It is important to discuss initial licensing requirements with a counselor or advisor because teacher education programs are geared to the requirements in the state where you wish to teach. If you are transferring from a community college, you need to talk to a counselor about making sure your credits transfer to a four-year education degree granting institution. Another important step is to research salaries for teachers in different areas. This might have an impact on where you choose to start your teaching career. .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28 { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28:active, .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28 { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28 .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28 .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .u7d7ad6a562350f057eb94f94e4087d28:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Making a Difference with Payroll AccountingSome education subject areas, no matter where you choose to teach, include the psychology of learning and methods of teaching. You will also need to gain the necessary technical and computer skills. A masters degree in education is required in some states, which will involve extra coursework and specialization in a particular subject. If you are already have a bachelors degree and wish to become a teacher, there are several programs available to assist you in obtaining a license. A graduate can take a masters program in education that will grant a license. Or a graduate can work in schools under provisional licensure with closed supervision, while adding additional education courses. Once the training and studies are completed, full licensure is obtained. States vary from one to another, so you should do your research carefully and consult the relevant State Department of Education website. Requirements also differ depending on whether you want to teach elementary or secondary students. The requirements remain dynamic from year to year and from state to state. .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e:active, .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .ua72e1427796b3758da427126383cc25e:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ So You Have a Criminal Justice Degree, Now WhatIt is also a good idea to explore the world of teaching before you make a formal commitment to pursue this career. You could seek permission to observe student teachers in a classroom, visit teacher preparation courses that provide classroom experience in different areas of teaching, or observe a student teachers peer group discussion where classroom experience is discussed. Another avenue would be to volunteer in a classroom as a tutor. There are many student organizations for people pursuing the same career goals, and you might want to check out the ones relevant to teachers on your campus. There is a growing need for good teachers, and you can make a big difference in the lives of many children. There are many options and steps to take to reach this goal, but it is a noble profession and one in which you can take great pride. Related ArticlesBachelors Degrees in Teaching OnlineOnline Masters and Doctorates Degrees in EducationEarning a Masters Degrees in Computer Science OnlineOnline Degree Opportunities For TeachersUse the Internet to Attain a Masters Degree in TeachingObtaining a Degree in Teaching .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3 { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3:active, .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3 { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3 .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3 .postTitle { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .ufc20e4b8ad7f1e5cd919702e13c572e3:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Students of Business Administration

Psychology Lesson Pl Introducing Sensation And Perception...

Psychology Lesson Plan: Introduction to Sensation and Perception Key Words/ Concepts: Sensation: sensory information is detected by sensory receptors in the form of action potentials (Psychology, p. 150, 2016) Perception: the way sensory information is processed, organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced (Psychology, p. 151, 2016) Stimuli, Stimulus: something that excites an organism or part to functional activity. (Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2016) Transduction: the conversion of sensory stimulus energy to action potential (Psychology, p. 150, 2016) 5 Main Senses: Sight, Smell, Taste, Touch, and Hearing Additional Senses: Balance, Body position, movement, pain, and temperature Subliminal Messages: a stimulus received but not consciously aware of; researched heavily (Psychology, p. 150, 2016) Opening words and activity: Who can tell me the difference between perception and sensation? (Pause for answers, respond accordingly to students, â€Å"Not quite†, â€Å"Close†, â€Å"Very good†) These are all very good attempts, but let me show you the difference. If the class will please divide into groups of three. One student from each group will be blindfolded, one will write down the answers, and one will be giving items to the blindfolded student. Activity: 5 containers will be filled with the following: wet cotton balls, sunflower seeds, olives, small real dry sponges, a bundle of clover blossoms. As the containers are passed from group to group, the un-blindfolded student will hand

Jesus Christ and International Leadership Free Essays

This paper will describe how Jesus himself was an international leader. The format will be as follows: Jesus as a leader, his role as an International leader, and how he still Influences events Internationally. This paper argues that what Jesus taught and how he acted as a leader differed much from other teachings on leadership. We will write a custom essay sample on Jesus Christ and International Leadership or any similar topic only for you Order Now Jesus was not just a leader, he was a servant leader. Dale Carnage’s teachings on leadership will be the first to be compared with Jesus’ teachings. First Carnegie tells his readers In How to Win Friends and Influence People that we should always show appreciation for people. He distinguishes true appreciation from flattery and says that it is only true appreciation that will open doors. [insert quote]. Similarly, Jesus also shows a strong appreciation for people. The story of the Prodigal Son teaches the reader that In addition to loving one’s neighbor one should also love one’s enemy. When the spendthrift son had wasted all of his father’s money on an extravagant lifestyle and prostitutes, he realized his disastrous lifestyle and come home. Yet his father not only welcomed him back but slaughtered the best pig and organized a feast In his son’s honor. The Sermon on he Mount praised those who no one else wanted to praise. â€Å"Blessed are the poor In spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth,† said Jesus. Yet Carnegie asks for us to show appreciation for others because we may never know which opportunities and benefits doing so will give us. Jesus taught us to honor and appreciate other, especially those who are not usually receive accolade, because it is part of God’s purpose for us. Second Carnegie emphasizes that we should give the there person a reputation to live up to . Insert quote]. Jesus teaches something similar. Before he dies on the cross. Jesus gets down on his knees and washes his disciples feet. When one of his disciples disapproved at doing such a demeaning task, Jesus replied, † Very truly I tell you, no servant is greater than his master, nor is a messenger greater than the one wh o sent him. † On encouraging others, Jesus also teaches us to submit to God’s will. The Book of Luke tells us that right before Jesus’ arrest he prayed while sweating drops of blood, † Father, if you are willing, take this up from me; yet not my will, but yours be done. Jesus gives us a reputation to live up to showing us his example. He does not motivate us teach us to be prideful or to Instill pride In others. As leaders we should act with humility and encourage others to do so as well. We should Inspire In others a reputation to be a servant. Third Carnegie tells his readers to encourage instead of punishing. [insert quote]. 1 OFF Jesus, as well, rarely Trace toners to accept ml Ana Nils teaching. Ratter en encouraged them by being merciful and voicing his higher expectation. Once when Jesus was at the temple, an adulterous woman was brought in to be stoned. The Pharisees wanted to stone her for breaking one of the Ten Commandments and asked him for his opinion. Jesus demanded, † Let any one of you who is without sin be the first to throw a stone at her. † After cold-hearted Pharisees had left, the shocked and sincerely grateful women stayed behind. Jesus simply told her to go and leave her life of sin. While Jesus was being beaten by the Roman soldiers and spit upon, bystanders yelled that Peter was one of Jesus’ disciples. Peter embarrassed by he bullying and scared for his own well-being, denied the accusers three times. Instead of standing up for Jesus, Peter ran away and wept. However, Jesus understood the importance of encouragement. After his resurrection he comes back to visit Peter and asks Peter to shepherd Jesus’ other followers. Carnegie tells his readers to encourage others and praise all of their small accomplishments mostly for the motivators own benefit. Jesus on the other hand saw people as the ends and not the means, valuing them not for what they did but for who is were. His disciples went on to influence people all around the world. How to cite Jesus Christ and International Leadership, Essays

User Requirement Analysis free essay sample

Proceedings of IFIP 17th World Computer Congress, Montreal, Canada, 25-30 August 2002, p133-148. Kluwer Academic Publishers. User requirements analysis A review of supporting methods Martin Maguire Research School in Ergonomics and Human Factors Loughborough University, UK m. c. [emailprotected] ac. uk Nigel Bevan Serco Usability Services, UK [emailprotected] serco. com Abstract: Understanding user requirements is an integral part of information systems design and is critical to the success of interactive systems. However specifying these requirements is not so simple to achieve. This paper describes general methods to support user requirements analysis that can be adapted to a range of situations. Some brief case studies are described to illustrate how these methods have been applied in practice. user requirements, user-centred design, usability methods Key words: 1. INTRODUCTION Understanding user requirements is an integral part of information systems design and is critical to the success of interactive systems. It is now widely understood that successful systems and products begin with an understanding of the needs and requirements of the users. As specified in the ISO 13407 standard (ISO, 1999), user-centred design begins with a thorough understanding of the needs and requirements of the users. The benefits can include increased productivity, enhanced quality of work, reductions in support and training costs, and improved user satisfaction. Requirements analysis is not a simple process. Particular problems faced by the analyst are: †¢ addressing complex organisational situations with many stakeholders †¢ users and designers thinking along traditional lines, reflecting the current system and processes, rather than being innovative †¢ users not knowing in advance what they want from the future system (Olphert Damodaran, 2002) 2 †¢ M. Maguire and N. Bevan rapid development cycles, reducing the time available for user needs analysis †¢ representing user requirements in an appropriate form. This paper considers how these problems can be addressed by selecting appropriate methods to support the process of user requirements generation and validation. It describes each method briefly and shows how it contributes to the requirements process. The basis for the application of different user requirements methods is a simple process as shown in Figure 1 below encompassing 4 elements: Information gathering User needs identification Envisioning and evaluation Requirements specification Figure 1: General process for user requirements analysis The four stages, and methods used to support the stages, are described in the next sections, followed by a summary table highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. 2. INFORMATION GATHERING The first step in user requirements analysis is to gather background information about the users and stakeholders and the processes that currently take place. The following methods may be adopted: Stakeholder analysis identifies all the users and stakeholders who may influence or be impacted by the system. This helps ensure that the needs of all those involved are taken into account. If required, the system is tested by them. User groups may include end users, supervisors, installers, and maintainers. Other stakeholders include recipients of output from the system, marketing staff, purchasers and support staff (Taylor, 1990). Stakeholder analysis identifies, for each user and stakeholder group, their main roles, responsibilities and task goals in relation to the system. One of the main issues is how to trade-off the competing needs of different stakeholder groups in the new system (see 4. Allocation of function and user cost-benefit analysis). User requirements analysis 3 Secondary market research involves researching published sources such as research reports, census data, demographic information, that throw light upon the range of possible user markets. Websites representing special groups of users such as that for the Royal National Institute for the Blind (www. rnib. org. uk/digita l) give information about the nature of the user population they represent (Mander Smith, 2002). Context of use analysis is used when a system or product is developed. The quality of a system, including usability, accessibility and social acceptability factors, depends on having a very good understanding of the context of use of the system. For example, a bank machine (ATM) will be much more usable if it is designed for use at night as well as during the day, in bright sunlight as well as normal light, and by people in wheelchairs as well as those able to stand. Similarly in an office environment, there are many characteristics that can impinge on the usability of a new software product e. g. user workload, support available, or interruptions. Capturing contextual information is therefore important in helping to specify user requirements. In order to gather contextual information, stakeholders attend a facilitated meeting, called a Context Meeting. Here a questionnaire is completed to capture the characteristics of the users, their tasks and operating environment (see main headings in Table 1 below). User group †¢ System skills and experience. †¢ Task knowledge. †¢ Training. †¢ Qualifications. †¢ Language skills. †¢ Age gender. †¢ Physical and cognitive capabilities. †¢ Attitudes and motivations. Physical environment †¢ Auditory environment. Thermal environment. †¢ Visual environment. †¢ Vibration. †¢ Space and furniture. †¢ User posture. †¢ Health hazards. †¢ Protective clothing equipment. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Technical environment Tasks â⠂¬ ¢ Hardware. Task list. †¢ Software. Goal. †¢ Network. Output. †¢ Reference materials. Steps. †¢ Other equipment. Frequency. Importance. Duration. Dependencies. Organisational environment Work practices. Assistance. Interruptions. Management communications structure. Computer use policy. Organisational aims. Industrial relations. Job characteristics. Table 1. Context of use factors Context of use analysis was one of the outcomes of the ESPRIT HUFIT project and developed further in the ESPRIT MUSiC project (Bevan and Macleod, 1994). Context of use analysis within usability activities are also reviewed in Maguire (2001c). 4 M. Maguire and N. Bevan Task analysis involves the study of what a user is required to do in terms of actions and/or cognitive processes to achieve a task. A detailed task analysis can be conducted to understand the current system, the information flows within it, the problems for people, and opportunities that indicate ser needs. There are many variations of task analysis and notations for recording task activities. One of the most widely used is hierarchical task analysis, where high level tasks are de-composed into more detailed components and sequences. Another method creates a flow chart showing the sequence of human activities and the associated inputs and outputs (Ericsson 2001). Kirwan Ainsworth (1992) provide a guide to the different task analysis methods, while Hackos Redish (1998) explain some of the simpler methods for user interface design. Rich pictures can help stakeholders map, explore and understand a complex problem space and thereby help to identify hidden requirements (Checkland, 1981). The technique involves creating a series of sketches to show how people and systems relate to each other in an organisation. They may show peoples’ roles, power structures, communications and reporting mechanisms. Drawing simple figures of people with thought and speech bubbles linked to them can show particular problem areas in the current environment that may lead to new user requirements. Field study and observational methods involve an investigator viewing users as they work and taking notes of the activity that takes place. Observation may be either direct, where the investigator is actually present during the task, or indirect, where the task is recorded on videotape by the analysis team and viewed at a later time. The observer tries to be unobtrusive during the session and only poses questions if clarification is needed. Obtaining the co-operation of users is vital so the interpersonal skills of the observer are important. For further information see Preece et al. (1994). Diary keeping provides a record of user behaviour over a period of time. They require the participant to record activities they are engaged in throughout a normal day that may lead to the identification of user requirements for a new system or product. Diaries require careful design and prompting if they are to be employed properly be participants. Video recording can be used to capture human processes in a stakeholder’s workplace or other location. The results can then be revised for the purpose of understanding more about the work and generating relevant questions relevant to user needs. Video can also be a useful supplement to other method e. g. to demonstrate new system concepts to users during user/stakeholder discussion groups. 3. USER NEEDS IDENTIFICATION Once user data has been collected, user needs can start to be identified. A number of methods exist for identifying such needs. User requirements analysis 5 User surveys involve administering a set of written questions to a sample population of users. Surveys can help determine the needs of users, current work practices and attitudes to new system ideas. Surveys are normally composed of a mix of closed questions with fixed responses and open questions, where the respondents are free to answer as they wish. This method is useful for obtaining quantitative as well as some qualitative data from a large number of users about the problems of existing tasks or the current system. For further information see Preece et al. (1994). Focus groups bring together a cross-section of stakeholders in a discussion group format. This method is useful for requirements elicitation and can help to identify issues that need to be tackled. The general idea is that each participant can act to stimulate ideas in the other people present, and that by a process of discussion, the collective view becomes established which is greater than the individual parts. For further information see Bruseberg McDonagh-Philp (2001). Interviewing is a commonly used technique where users, stakeholders and domain experts are questioned to gain information about their needs or requirements in relation to the new system. Interviews are usually semistructured based on a series of fixed questions with scope for the user to expand on their responses. They can also be used as part of task analysis. For further information see Preece et al. (1994) and Macaulay (1996). Interviews on a customer site by representatives from the system development team can be very informative. Seeing the environment also gives a vivid mental picture of how users are working with the existing system and how the new system can support them (Mander and Smith, 2002). Scenarios and use cases give detailed realistic examples of how users may carry out their tasks in a specified context with the future system. The primary aim of scenario building is to provide examples of future use as an aid to understanding and clarifying user requirements and to provide a basis for later usability testing. Scenarios can help identify usability targets and likely task completion times. The method also promotes developer buy-in and encourages a human-centred design approach. Scenarios of use are sometimes called ‘use cases’, although the term is also used by software engineers to refer to the use of functions. In a related method called personas, a caricature is created with a name, personality and picture, to represent each of the most important user groups. Potential design solutions can then be evaluated against the needs of a particular persona and the tasks they are expected to perform. Personas are used by innovative design groups to stimulate creativity rather than refine a design solution (Cooper 1999). Future workshops are a way to help users and designers ‘break out’ from a current situations and thinking. Essentially they involve gathering 6 M. Maguire and N. Bevan participants and posing questions such as: ‘Where do you want to be 10 years from now’. Once participants have agreed a suitable goal, they then seek to establish a process by which it can be achieved. Another variation is to define new technological developments, discuss when they might be attainable and what implications this might have for the user organisation. Evaluating an existing or competitor system can provide valuable information about the extent to which current systems meet user needs and can identify potential usability problems to avoid in the new system. Useful features identified in a competitor system can also be fed into the design process as potential user requirements. Measures of effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction can be used as a baseline for the new system. To obtain accurate measures a controlled user test should be used, but valuable information can still be obtained from less formal methods of testing. 4. ENVISIONING AND EVALUATION Once an initial set of user requirements has been developed, it is important to develop a prototype to illustrate them. User feedback can then be obtained on the prototype to validate and refine the user requirements. Potential techniques are described in this section Brainstorm sessions bring together a set of design and task experts to inspire each other in the creative, idea generation phase of the problem solving process. They are used to generate new ideas by freeing the mind to accept any idea that is suggested, thus allowing freedom for creativity. The method has been widely used the early phases of design. The results of a brainstorming session are, it is hoped, a set of good ideas and a general feel for the solution area to meet user needs. Card sorting is a technique for uncovering the hierarchical structure in a set of concepts by asking users to group items written on a set of cards. This is often used, for instance, to work out the organisation of a website. Users would be given cards with the names of the intended web pages on the site and asked to group the cards into related categories. After gathering the groupings from several users, designers can typically spot clear structures across many users. Statistical analysis can uncover the best groupings from the data where it is not clear by inspection. IBM (2002) is an example of an analysis programme. Affinity diagramming is a related technique that can be used for organising the structure of a new system, and allows participants to work as a group. Designers or users write down items such as potential screens or functions on sticky notes and then organise the notes by grouping them, to uncover the structure and relationships in a domain. Affinity diagrams are often a good next step after a brainstorming session. See Beyer Holtzblatt (1998) for more information. User requirements analysis 7 Storyboards, also termed Presentation Scenarios, are sequences of images that show the relationship between user actions or inputs and system outputs. A typical storyboard will contain a number of images depicting features such as menus, dialogue boxes and windows. Storyboard sequences provide a platform for exploring and refining user requirements options via a static representation of the future system by showing them to potential users and members of a design team (Andriole, 1989). Prototyping is where designers create paper or software-based simulations of user interface elements (menus, buttons, icons, windows, dialogue sequences, etc. ) in a static or dynamic way. When a paper prototype has been prepared, a member of the design team sits before a user and plays the computer by moving the paper and card interface elements around in response to the users actions. The difficulties encountered by the user and user comments, are recorded by an observer. Software prototypes provide a greater level of realism than is normally possible with simple paper mockups. Here, the aim is to create a rapid prototype that is used to establish an acceptable design for the user but is then thrown away prior to full implementation. Some design processes are based on a rapid application development (RAD) approach. Here a small group of designers and users work intensively on a prototype, making frequent changes in response to user comment. The prototype evolves into the full system. Hall (2001) discusses the merits and cost-benefits of varying fidelity levels of prototypes. Allocation of function is an important element for many systems. As ISO 13407 (1999) states in clause 7. 3. 2, allocation of function is the division of system tasks into those performed by humans and those performed by technology to specify a clear system boundary. A range of options is established to identify the optimal division of labour, to provide job satisfaction and efficient operation of the whole work process. User costbenefit analysis can then be carried out to determine how acceptable each user group will find the new arrangement. The use of task allocation charts and cost-benefit analysis is most useful for systems that affect whole work processes rather than single user, single task products. They also provide the opportunity to rethink the system design or user roles to provide a more acceptable solution for all groups. A process for performing a user costbenefit analysis is described by Eason (1988). Design guidelines and standards are referred to by designers nd HCI specialists for guidance on ergonomic issues associated with the system being developed. The ISO 9241 standard (ISO, 1997) covers many aspects of hardware and software user-interface design, and contains a widely agreed body of software ergonomics advice. See Bevan (2001) for more information on ISO standards. Style guides embody good practice in interface design. Following a style guide will increase the consistency bet ween screens and can reduce the development time. For a GUI (graphic user interface) an operating 8 M. Maguire and N. Bevan ystem style guide should be followed to implement good practice and to provide consistency. For websites, design guidelines are evolving but good web design principles are gradually being established (Nielsen, 2000). Nicolle and Abascal (2001) discuss issues and present guidelines to make systems accessible by people with disabilities. Parallel design sessions involve a few small groups of designers working independently, to generate a range of diverse solutions. The aim is to develop and evaluate different system designs before choosing a solution (possibly drawing from several solutions) as a basis for the implemented system . REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION General guidance on specifying user and organisational requirements and objectives is provided in ISO 13407. The following should be documented within the specification: identification of the range of relevant users and other stakeholders, a clear statement of design goals, the requirements with an indication their priority levels, measurable benchmarks against which the emerging design can be tested, evidence of acceptance of the requirements by the stakeholders, acknowledgement of statutory or legislative requirements, e. g. for health and safety. It is also important to manage changing requirements as the system develops. The following sections describe techniques and methods to support user and organisational requirements specification. Task/function mapping specifies the system functions that each user will require for the different tasks that they perform. By showing the relationship between the tasks and the corresponding functional requirements linked in matrix form, trade-offs can be made between different functions, or to add and remove functions depending on their value for supporting specific tasks. It is also useful for multi-user systems to ensure that the tasks of each user type are supported. Requirements categorisation User requirements: It is important to establish and document the user requirements so that they lead into the process of designing the system itself. User requirements will include summary descriptions of the tasks that the system will support and the functions that will be provided to support them. Usability requirements: It is also necessary to describe the detailed usability requirements in order to set objectives for the design team, and help prioritise usability work. Generally agreed usability goals to define are: effectiveness: the degree of success with which users achieve their task goals: efficiency: the time it takes to complete tasks; and satisfaction: user comfort and acceptability; see ISO 9241, part 11 ‘Guidance on Usability’ (ISO, 1997). These are most easily derived from the evaluation of an existing system. Other more detailed usability issues provide more specific design objectives e. g. understandability, learnability, supportiveness, flexibility and User requirements analysis attractiveness. Having established usability requirements, it is then necessary to translate the requirements into a specification (specification = requirement + measure). ISO 9126-4 (ISO, 2002) provides a framework for specifying measurable requirements (see also section 6. 3). Organisational requirements: A third element is to specify the organisational requirements for the user-system complex, i. e. those that come out of a system being placed into a social context. An understanding of organisational equirements will help to create systems that can support the management structure of the organisation and communications within it, as well as group and collaborative working. Defining and grouping the tasks in an appropriate way will help to create motivating and satisfying jobs, ideally allowing users autonomy, flexibility, provision of good feedback on their performance and the opportunity to develop their skills and careers. Statutory or legislative requirements may also be classed as organisational requirements. The information needed to specify user, usability and organisational requirements will be drawn from the context of use and user needs activities described in previous sections. Maguire (1998) and Roberston Roberston (1999) provide frameworks for user requirements specification. Prioritisation of user requirements is important so that development resources can be directed appropriately. The DSDM development method uses ‘time boxes’ where the functions and features in each phase of a system’s release are defined by the resources available. This helps control the risks in system development, and allows the customer to redirect future effort to meet the user’s needs more closely. Criteria setting relates to the need for criteria to help decide whether the user requirements have been achieved. This can be done by an inspection team or by user testing, where a representative user sample performs typical tasks with the system and the performance scores and attitude ratings help decide if the system can be accepted. Defining acceptance criteria in advance can be achieved by performing pre-tests on the existing system or on a competitor system, to specify criteria that the new system must be at least as good as these current systems. 10 M. Maguire and N. Bevan 6. COMPARISON SUMMARY Table 2 below presents the advantages and disadvantages of each method presented in this paper to assist in method selection. Method Stakeholder analysis Secondary market research Context of use analysis Benefits Ensures that all relevant stakeholders are considered. Low cost and provides good overview of potential market. Provides framework for documenting all factors that may affect the usability of the product. Defines and models tasks that can highlight user needs directly. Allows complex user environments to be mapped out and potential requirements to be identified Allows viewing of what users actually do in context and may discover unnoticed processes. Allows user to record activities throughout the day. Drawbacks Information may be too general or out of date. May be lengthy process. Not all headings applicable to project. Could be shortcircuited for smaller systems. May be over-formal for simple tasks or open-ended tasks. Pictures may highlight indicative factors but may lack sufficient detail. Time consuming to perform. User commentary and analyst observation may disturb tasks. Users may forget to complete diaries or summarise activities at the end. Analyst reminders may be annoying. Time consuming to perform. Requires users to explain activities post-observation. Does not capture in depth comments and may not permit follow-up. Recruitment effort to assemble groups. Dominant participants may influence group disproportionately. 2. INFORMATION GATHERING Task Analysis Rich pictures Field study and observational methods Diary keeping Video recording Captures real current activities without the intrusiveness of direct observation. 3. USER NEEDS IDENTIFICATION User surveys Relatively quick method of determining preferences of large user groups and allows for statistical analysis. Focus groups Allows analyst to rapidly obtain a wide variety of user views and possibly a consensus. Table 2. Comparison of user requirements methods User requirements analysis 11 3. USER NEEDS IDENTIFICATION continued Interviewing Interviews allow for quick elicitation of ideas and concepts. Customer visits brings user context to life. Effective way of thinking about future system use in context. Personas can bring user needs to life. Way of thinking creatively. Effective means of identifying current problems, possible new features and acceptance criteria. Blank page approach allowing for rapid elicitation and innovative thinking. Effective means of organising structure of a system e. g. a website. Demonstrates software interactions and possibly user context simply and early in the development cycle. Quick to build and refine. Allows early detection of usability issues in response to user feedback Identifies task concerns for the whole work process. Helps define fulfilling jobs and reduces risk of dissatisfied staff. Draws upon established knowledge to assist design. Produces range of design ideas and solutions. Can pick best from each. Need to negotiate access and to combine range of possibly differing opinions from different users. Scenarios may raise expectations too much. Personas may over simplify user population. Results may seem too ambitious for current needs. May lead to including too many new functions or make system too similar to a competitor’s. Doesn’t cover detailed design aspects. Needs way to combine results if performed by individuals or groups separately. Lacks interactive quality of prototyping. Scenarios, use cases and personas Future workshops Existing system/ competitor analysis 4. ENVISIONING EVALUATING Brainstorming Card sorting and affinity diagrams Storyboards Prototyping Allocation of function and cost benefit analysis Design guidelines and standards Parallel design Paper prototypes do not support evaluation of fine details. Throwaway software prototypes do but are time consuming to build. Needs good overview of whole system. Many allocation options can cause confusion. Cost benefits sometimes hard to estimate. May be too general or constrain design. Requires certain amount of organisation to assemble design teams. Table 2. Comparison of user requirements methods (continued) 12 M. Maguire and N. Bevan 5. REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION Task/function mapping Way of selecting functions that are relevant to specific tasks. May be a way to avoid including too many functions. Effective way to categorise user requirements. Covers user and organisational levels. Ensures that effort is put into the most important aspects of the system. Way to determine if developed system has met the user requirements. Knowing when task definitions sufficient. Make include tasks to justify unnecessary functions. May be hard to decide which user requirements fall into which categories. Poor management of user expectations may results in disappointed users. Not easily to define suitable criteria. Extensive testing of achievement may be resource intensive. User. usability and organisational requirements Prioritisation Criteria setting Table 2. Comparison of user requirements methods (continued) 7. CASE STUDIES This section describes a series of case studies to show how the methods described in this paper support user requirements development. Normally a mix of methods and techniques is needed. Development of intranet site. A study was carried out by HUSAT (Maguire Hirst, 2001b) to evaluate and redesign an intranet site for a police service in the UK. Human Factors consultants performed the study working with a police officer who was project manager for intranet development, and a civilian co-ordinator with a knowledge of police procedures and human factors. Semi-structured interviews were performed with users and stakeholders covering: needs and aspirations regarding the intranet, how well the current system meets those needs, and possible improvements that could be made. Interviewees were given access to the intranet site so they could demonstrate their comments. They included a constable, sergeant, inspector, senior officers and non-police admin staff. Following the user and stakeholder interviews, an expert review of the intranet pages was performed to establish the strengths and weaknesses of the current service. General recommendations for change were made following the expert evaluation. These were discussed with police representatives and different options for concept designs were proposed using storyboards and screen prototypes. These methods matched the requirement to create and discuss rapid prototypes within the design team. Having developed the design concept, several options for the graphic design for the site were produced as software prototypes to demonstrate both look and feel. A final design for the home page and secondary level content pages was then produced with web User requirements analysis 13 templates to allow the police service to install the new pages and maintain them in the future. The project showed how a combination of methods can produce an acceptable new system design within a relatively short time (3 months). Expert evaluation of training opportunities. An evaluation was carried out by HUSAT (Maguire Hirst, 2001a) which provided information about business-related courses to SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). This was part of a programme of work to develop user requirements for a web-based elearning service or virtual campus. An evaluation was performed by two Human Factors experts who spent time reviewing each of the main parts of the system from their own experience, a knowledge of typical tasks and usability principles. When providing comments on the system the aim was not to improve the current system but to identify features and implications for the new system. Inputs, from a usability perspective, were made to the user specification of the new virtual campus system. These included elements such as: the inclusion of functions to cover course providers as well as users (as this stakeholder had not previously been considered); suggestion for a mechanism to enter, modify and delete course information and course modules; and provision of typical scenarios of use by the users to make sure that the supplier and customer have the same vision of the system. The project demonstrated how expert evaluation of a current system can provide useful feedback into the requirements specification for the new system. Interviews to assess future requirements for financial services. Interviews were carried out by HUSAT with family groups to study their management of home finances (Maguire, 1999). Context of use information was gathered, supported by photographs taken of rooms where financial tasks were carried out. The interviews were held as a series of focus group sessions within each household to discuss how and where they performed financial tasks, how they would like to receive services in future and through which devices, e. g. TV, PC, or other domestic appliance. The sessions were videotaped and areas and devices in the home were photographed. The study showed where household devices were located and where family members performed current financial tasks. This provided a basis for identifying innovative ways to deliver future financial services to the home. Survey to establish user needs for a climate change system. The EC IST EuroClim project (http://euroclim. nr. no) aims to develop an advanced climate monitoring and prediction system for Europe. Climate related data will be stored in digital form collected from a network of sites across Europe. The system will produce raster maps and datasets for scientists and public users showing changes in snow on land, glaciers, sea ice, and general climate trends. To understand the diversity of user requirements for data precision, metadata and data formats, a user needs survey was carried out with climate 14 M. Maguire and N. Bevan rofessionals and public users across Europe. Much effort was required to analyse all the different needs and to summarise them in a form that the design team could assimilate. User needs for data quality varied between users. Therefore charts were produced to show what proportion of users in the survey would be satisfied by different components of data quality i. e. resolution, accuracy and delivery delay. For a specialist sy stem such as EuroClim, it is important to be able to trace the requirements back to the organisations that specified them so that clarification of user needs can be obtained. Based on the information gathered from the survey, a user interface mock-up is being developed to demonstrate the system concept and to ‘prototype’ the user requirements before the system specification is firmed up and development begins. User centred design at IAI. Serco worked with IAI LAHAV to evaluate the benefits of applying user-centred methods on a typical project. The user centred design techniques recommended by TRUMP (Bevan et al, 2000) were selected to be simple to plan and apply, and easy to learn by development teams. 1. Stakeholder meeting and context of use workshop The stakeholder meeting identifies and agrees on the role of usability, the usability goals, and how these relate to the business objectives and success criteria for the system. The context workshop collects detailed information about the intended users, their tasks, and the technical and environmental constraints. Both events each last for about half a day. 2. Scenarios of use A half day workshop to document examples of how users are expected carry out key tasks in a specified contexts, to provide an input to design and a basis for subsequent usability testing. . Evaluate an existing system Evaluation of an earlier version or competitor system to identify usability problems and obtain measures of usability as an input to usability requirements. 4. Usability requirements A half-day workshop to establish usability requirements for the user groups and tasks identified in the context of use analysis and in the scenarios. 5. Paper prototypi ng Evaluation by users of quick low fidelity prototypes to clarify requirements and enable draft interaction designs and screen designs to be rapidly simulated and tested. 6. Style guide Identify, document and adhere to industry, corporate or project conventions for screen and page design. 7. Evaluation of machine prototypes Informal usability testing with 3-5 representative users carrying out key tasks to provide rapid feedback. 8. Usability testing Formal usability testing with 8 representatives of a user group carrying out key tasks to identify any remaining usability problems and evaluate whether usability objectives have been achieved. IAI concluded that most of the techniques are very intuitive to understand, implement and facilitate. Practicing these techniques in the early stages of User requirements analysis 15 design and development ensures less design mistakes later on. 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